Culture

The culture during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism. Slaughter of animals for food was considered low and unclean. Therefore the rearing of animals, except for buffalo and cattle, was not common. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were regarded highly. Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields. Dairy products formed an important part of the diet, and Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from the cow; milk, curd, buttermilk, ghee and butter Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for transport.^[88]

Metalwork was an important and well developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes have been widely. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced in large scale for the military. A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya, which had been roofed entirely with copper.

Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation tanks to enable easy access to water for agriculture. The houses were located immediately below the tank bund, between the tank and the paddy fields. This allowed easy controlling of the water to the fields and also allowed the maintenance of home gardens for fruits and vegetables. A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy tract, reservoir, grazing ground, shift crop reserve and the village forest. In rain fed areas, a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir.^] Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhpura Kingdom because of the numerous reservoirs Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland.

Women appear to have been allowed considerable freedom and independence during this period. Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters

Religion

After the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, it spread throughout the country under his patronage After this, the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana. Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to the country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established after Abhayagiriya was built, which represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidenece exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after the Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding buddhism

Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs. Rulers such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V and Mahinda IV promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha.^[54] Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya expelled several monks from the order for supporting such views. A change in this occurred when Mahasen exmbraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and the authority or kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine.

Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen setroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the second century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as Mahatittha and Gokanna were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, large Hindu temples such as the Konesvaram temple had been constructed Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba

Literature

From third century BC to third century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the Brahmi script. This gradually developed into the modern sinhala script, but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya.^[106] Poems written from the sixth century to the end of the Anuradhaura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed to the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries

Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara, was written in the ninth or tenth century on the art of poetry and is based on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsha. Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha, providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda, a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period. During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali Tripitaka was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries on Buddhism, known as Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama. Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country

Art

The oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period are the Sigiriya frescoes. These fifth century paintings, dating back to the reign of Kashyapa I at Sigiriya, depict female figures carrying flowers. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings, suggesting that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs), ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear certain similarities to the paintings of Ajanta, there are major differences as well, suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of artPaintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted. Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Dutthagamani wanted to see it on his death bed. Statue making, most noticeably statues of the Buddha, was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the first century AD. Standard postures such as Abhaya Mudra, Dhyana Mudra, Vitarka Mudra and Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, showing the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, is sculpted from dolomite marble and is datable to the fourth century AD. The Toluvila statue is similar to this, and dates to the later stages of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period include the ones at Avukana, Maligavila and Buduruvagala. The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country, standing at 50 feet (15 m). All these statues are carved out of rock. The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that Jetthatissa II was himself skilled in stone and ivory carving

Architecture

The construction of stupas was noticeable not only during the Anuradhapura Kingdom but throughout the history of Sri Lanka. Stupas were built enshrining an object of worship. The stupa of Thuparamaya, built by Devanampiya Tissa, is one of the earliest built and was constructed immediately after the arrival of Buddhism. The construction of large stupas was begun by Dutthagamani with the construction of the Ruwanweli Seya, standing 300 feet (91 m) high with a circumference of 298 feet (91 m).^[

The Anuradhapura dagabas which date from the early centuries of the Anuradhapura period, are of such colossal proportions that they constitute the largest structures of their type anywhere in the Buddhist World, even rivaling the Pyramids of Egypt in size.

The Abhayagiri stupa in the Abhayagiriya monastic complex is another large stupa of the Anuradhapura period the original height of which was 350 feet (110 m). The Jetavana stupa, constructed by Mahasen, is the largest in the country. Stupas had deep and well constructed foundations, and the builders were clearly aware of the attributes of the materials used for construction. Suitable methods for each type of material have been used to lay foundations on a firm basis. All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large stone columns. These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as the Lovamahapaya (brazen palace). Drainage systems of these buildings are also well planned, and terra cotta pipes were used to carry water to drainage pits. Large ponds were attached to some monasteries, such as the Kuttam Pokuna (twin pond). Hospital complexes have also been found close to monasteries. Buildings were constructed using timber, bricks and stones. Stones were used for foundations and columns, while brick were used for walls. Lime mortar was used for plastering walls